The story illustrates the tension between sovereign power and the rule of law. We often take our international guests to visit the historic windmill that still stands today next to the palace, a popular site for tourists, to highlight the enduring significance of the rule of law and show how historical examples continue to teach lessons about justice and governance. This legend also offers a lesson with resonance for contemporary political and territorial disputes, including recent discussions concerning Greenland and the ambitions of the United States under the administration of Donald J. Trump.

“The Legend of the Miller of Sanssouci”

The legend takes place in Potsdam at the summer palace of Frederick the Great. Frederick II, renowned for his military skill and enlightened administration, wished to secure unobstructed views for the construction of Sanssouci. A windmill, operated by a local miller, stood near the palace and was believed to disrupt the aesthetic harmony and the king’s vision for his grounds.

According to the story, the king summoned the miller and commanded him to sell or remove the mill. The miller, aware of the king’s authority but also of the rights of citizens under the law, refused. When Frederick threatened to enforce his will using royal prerogative, the miller responded:

“There are still judges in Berlin.”
(“Es gibt noch Richter in Berlin.”)

This statement became emblematic of the principle that even the monarch must abide by the law. The windmill remained, and the legend framed Frederick the Great not merely as an absolute ruler but as a sovereign constrained by legal and moral limits. Whether historically precise or somewhat embellished, the story served as a powerful illustration of the balance between authority and justice.

Franz Theodor Kugler and the Preservation of the Legend

The story of the miller and the king owes much of its endurance to Franz Theodor Kugler, one of the most influential German art historians and cultural commentators of the nineteenth century. Kugler’s scholarship, particularly his Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte (Handbook of Art History), was seminal in systematising art history as an academic discipline. He was also deeply interested in cultural history and national identity.

In his writings, Kugler recounted the miller legend as part of the broader cultural and historical narrative surrounding Frederick II and Prussia. By emphasising the anecdote’s moral and symbolic dimensions, Kugler transformed what may have been a local curiosity into a national myth. The story illustrated the constraints on power, the protection of individual rights, and the respect for law as a guiding principle of governance. Kugler’s work highlights the intersection of aesthetic, cultural, and political history. The legend is not only about a windmill but also about how enlightened authority and legal norms shape societies.

From Prussia to Greenland: The Modern Parallel

The Greenland episode offers a contemporary parallel to this historic story. In 2019, the United States under the presidency of Donald J. Trump publicly explored the purchase of Greenland, an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark. The announcement prompted immediate legal, diplomatic, and political responses, both in Denmark and internationally. Critics highlighted that Greenland’s people and Danish authorities hold legal sovereignty over the island. Acquisition could not be imposed by unilateral executive will.

In this context, the “millers” of Greenland, meaning its government and people, represent the legal and moral constraints on territorial ambition. The legend of Sanssouci reminds us that even powerful leaders, whether eighteenth-century monarchs or twenty-first-century presidents, face limits imposed by law, public consent, and international norms. The question posed by the miller’s response, “Are there still judges?” is as relevant to Washington and Nuuk as it was to Berlin and Potsdam centuries ago.

The Rule of Law in an Age of Territorial Temptation

The enduring relevance of the miller legend lies in its symbolic demonstration of the tension between authority and law. Kugler’s preservation of the story underscores how cultural narratives shape our understanding of governance and justice. Frederick the Great’s desire to control the landscape of his palace was tempered by legal principles. In the modern era, international law, constitutions, and norms of self-determination function as the “judges in Berlin” for global powers.

The Greenland case highlights a crucial lesson. Power without legal or moral constraints risks undermining both legitimacy and stability. As Kugler’s historical account reminds us, even the most formidable ruler is not absolute when society, law, and ethical norms assert themselves. Territorial ambitions, whether in the eighteenth or twenty-first century, encounter limits that cannot be overridden by proclamation alone.

The miller of Sanssouci remains a compelling figure not merely because of his defiance of a king, but because he embodies the principle that law constrains power. Franz Theodor Kugler’s scholarship ensured that this story endured, emphasising the moral and cultural lessons inherent in historical narrative. In the case of Greenland, the legend provides a metaphorical lens through which to view modern territorial politics. Executive ambition is continually tested by legal authority, sovereign rights, and the collective will of governed peoples. From Potsdam to Nuuk, the question resonates: even in an age of global ambition, are there still judges?

“The Miller of Sanssouci”, Menachem Begin, and the Rule of Law: Lessons for West Bank Settlements in Israel and Palestine

The enduring lesson of the Miller of Sanssouci found a modern echo in Menachem Begin’s famous declaration that “there are judges in Jerusalem.” While there is no direct evidence that Begin was inspired by the Prussian legend, the parallel is striking: both express the principle that even the most powerful leaders are constrained by law and independent judicial authority. Begin used this phrase to affirm the independence of Israel’s courts and the necessity of respecting legal decisions, reinforcing that democratic governance relies not only on executive will but also on institutional checks and the moral weight of the rule of law. Begin was the founder and long–time leader of the right‑wing Likud Party, which came to power in 1977 and shifted Israeli politics towards a greater emphasis on Jewish settlement in the occupied West Bank. In the present day, Likud‑led governments continue to pursue expansion of settlements and resist judicial review of key policy decisions, leading to intense debates within Israel about the balance between executive prerogatives, security considerations, and the authority of the courts. In this sense, the story of a miller standing up to Frederick the Great centuries ago continues to resonate, demonstrating how cultural memory and historical narrative can provide enduring guidance for contemporary political and legal challenges.

Cultural Diplomacy in Practice: How Historical Memory Shapes Authority

The Miller of Sanssouci legend also illustrates the power of cultural diplomacy in shaping perceptions of authority and justice. Franz Theodor Kugler preserved and interpreted the story in a way that communicated moral and civic values, and his approach indirectly influenced Jacob Burckhardt, the Swiss historian who expanded on Kugler’s method to integrate art, culture, and historical narrative into broader studies of civilisation, showing how cultural memory can convey moral and social lessons. This intellectual lineage demonstrates how historical anecdotes and cultural memory can transcend their immediate context to teach universal lessons about law and governance. Today, visiting the historic windmill with international guests becomes an act of cultural diplomacy: it demonstrates how a society’s artistic heritage, physical landmarks, and historical memory can teach enduring lessons about law, governance, and respect for sovereignty. This approach highlights that diplomacy is not only conducted through treaties and negotiations but also through the transmission of culture and shared values, reinforcing that the limits on power are both legal and cultural.

In the context of Greenland, the legend reminds diplomats and leaders alike that authority is more effective when exercised with respect for law, history, and the cultural frameworks that support international norms.

• Independent